Vyasa (c. 3250 BCE)

Undoubtedly the greatest philosophical luminary of the Vedic period, Vyasa was the complier of the Vedic canon and author of the Vedanta-sutras (also known as the Brahma-sutras).

Vyasa was the son of the philosopher Parasara and Satyavati in the modern day district of Jalaun in Uttar Pradesh. In his early life he adopted the life of a renunciant and went to live in the Himalayas where he classified the single Veda into four divisions (Rg, Yajur, Sama, Atharva) and divided the eighteen Puranas. In circa 3100 BCE Vyasa wrote the epic Mahabharata and later Vyasa wrote his philosophical treatise, the Vedanta-sutras. His last work was the natural commentary on the Vedanta-sutras, Srimad Bhagavatam.

Etymologically speaking, the word ‘vedanta’ is a compound of the two Sanskrit words ‘veda’ (knowledge) and ‘anta’ (conclusion). Vedanta constitutes the third division of the ancient Vedic philosophical course of study called the Prasthana-traya (three evidences). The three divisions of the Prasthana-traya are:

1) Sruti-prasthana: The Upanisads are known as the Sruti-prasthana, or higher knowledge revealed through aural perception.

2) Smrti-prasthana: The Bhagavad-gita (originally part of the Mahabharata) is known as the Smrti-prasthana, or the higher knowledge that has been composed and passed down through remembrance.

3) Nyaya-prasthana: The Vedanta-sutras are known as the Nyaya-prasthana, or the logical text that sets forth the philosophy systematically.

Whereas the Mimamsa theory of Jaimini emphasizes the ritualistic and mystical aspect of the Vedas, the Vedanta of Vyasa specifically emphasizes the aspect of knowledge and philosophy found in the Vedas. Therefore Mimamsa is sometimes known as Purva-mimamsa (the initial doctrine) and Vedanta is known as Uttara-mimamsa (the higher doctrine).

Vyasa’s Vedanta concerns itself with the understanding of Brahman, Thus, the Vedanta-sutras of Vyasa are more commonly known as the Brahma-sutras.

The Vedanta-sutras reconcile seemingly contradictory and diverse statements of the various Upanisads and the Bhagavad-gita, by placing each teaching in a doctrinal context. The word ‘sutra’ means thread, and the Vedanta-sutras literally stitch together the various Vedanta teachings into a logical and self-consistent whole. Vyasa was the first scholar to attempt to clarify and reconcile the apparent contradictions found within the symbolic language of the Upanisads. Through his sutras he explained upanisadic concepts in a systematic way.

The Vedanta-sutras consists of 564 verses (sutras) that are divided into four chapters called adhyayas. Each adhyaya is divided into four sections (padas). Every section consists of several groups of sutras called adhikaranas or topical sections.

The four adhyayas are named thus:

1. Samanvaya (harmony)
2. Avirodha (non-conflict)
3. Sadhana (the means)
4. Phala (the result)

* The first chapter (Samanvaya) explains that the sole topic of Vedanta is to establish and explain the nature of Brahman, or infinite consciousness that is the ultimate reality and goal of all existence.

* The second chapter (Avirodha) discusses and refutes various doctrines opposed to Vedanta philosophy.

* The third chapter (Sadhana) explains the process by which ultimate emanicpation can be achieved.

* The fourth chapter (Phala) explains the state of final emancipation.

The sutras themselves are very concise, thus various commentaries with different interpretations have been written to explain the sutras by many philosophical schools. The major schools of Vedanta are Sankara’s Advaita (non-dualism), Madhva’s Dvaita (dualism), Nimbarka’s Dvaitadvaita (both dualism and non-dualism), Ramanuja’s Visistadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Vallabha’s Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) and Sri Caitanya’s Acintya-bhedabheda (simultaneous dualism and non-dualsim).

All these schools of Vedanta can be divided into two categories: monistic and dualistic. The monistic school of Vedanta opines the non-difference between the finite individual conscious unit (jiva) and the infinite all-pervading conscious substance (Brahman). On the other hand, the dualistic schools of Vedanta consider that the jiva and Brahman are eternally separate entities, yet permanently related to one another.

All schools of Vedanta commonly use the word ‘Brahman’ to denote the transcendent aspect and ‘Isvara’ to denote the aspect of the ultimate reality that oversees the phenomenal world.

Despite the variety of interpretations, some factors are common amongst all divisions. All schools of thought try to resolve the following questions:

1. What is the ultimate reality?
2. From where did all physical and mental phenomena originate?
3. What is the nature of the state in which all things dissolve?
4. What is the reality through which everything is known?
5. What is that which makes an unknown known?
6. What is the means to attain immortality?
7. What is the nature of the self?
8. What occurs after death?
9. What is the position of the body, mind and sensory organs?

All Vedantic schools agree that without the influence of the conscious principle, unconscious matter cannot produce the world that adheres to particular rules and laws. Such order and regulation cannot simply be the product of unconcious matter. Thus all schools of Vedanta unanimously agree on the existence of a higher principle of infinite consciousness that is simultaneously involved in the phenomenal world and transcendent. Thus, no school of Vedanta agrees upon the conclusions of the doctrines of Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga and Buddhism in regard to the manifestation of the temporal world.

In fact, in his Vedanta-sutras, Vyasa goes to considerable lengths to refute other philosophical doctrines such as Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, Jainism, Saktavada and Pasupata-siddhanta. He also refutes the four different systems of Buddhism – Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Yogacara and Madhyamika.

The Vedanta-sutra is by no means the first text to try to explain the nature of Brahman, and is designed to provide an objective criticism of views held by others. Indeed, Vyasa refers in his sutras to other doctrines of previous philosophers such as Audulomi, Kasakrtsna, Badari and Asmarathya. He also refers to Jaimini, the founder of the Mimamsa philosophy. Vyasa accepts some of Jaimini’s and modifys them in others. He also refers to himself by name, apparently implying that he refers to some point he has expounded in another work. This seems to suggest that Vyasa composed the Vedanta-sutras at a time when the six main schools of Indian philosophy (Vedanta, Mimamsa, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisesika and Nyaya) were already well known. In fact, some scholars are of the opinion that all the philosophers named by Vyasa in his Vedanta-sutras were in fact his own pupils and that he has immortalized them through the medium of his text by referring to their contributions in interpreting difficult propositions, while supporting or modifying their views in his final conclusions.

SOURCES:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta
http://www.dvaita.org/madhva/brahma_suutra.html