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Patanjali (c. 250BCE)
Patanjali was the founder of the Yoga system of philosophy. Before formulating his theology, Patanjali studied Sankhya and other philosophies current in his era. Apart from his famous text, the Yoga-sutras that explains his philosophy, Patanjali also wrote the Mahabhasya – a commentary on the Astadhyayi of Panini (a Sanskrit grammatical treatise).
Yoga is generally considered by most to be simply a series of exercises to increase ones health. However, Patanjali’s Yoga system is a complex philosophical doctrine that is outlined in his famous Yoga-sutras.
Patanjali’s Yoga-sutras comprise of 196 aphorisms and promote the concept that the goal of Yoga is to cease all mental fluctuations (cittavrtti-nirodaha) and to link the individual consciousness with the super-consciousness. This is where the word yoga (Skt: to unite) originates. This Yoga system attempts to explain the nature of mind, its modifications, impediments to growth, afflictions, and the method for attaining what is described as the highest goal of life: kaivalya (absoluteness).
Patanjali’s philosophy is closely allied with Sankhya. In fact, it is considered by some that the Yoga system of Patanjali is the practical application of Kapila’s Sankhya philosophy. Theoretically, Patanjali’s Yoga is based on the same concepts as Sankhya, and also accepts some of the teachings of Vedanta. In Sankhya, the mental body is defined in terms of three functions – mind, intelligence and false ego (manasa, buddhi and ahankara), but in Vyasa’s Vedanta the mental body is divided into four parts – mind, intelligence, false ego and citta or conditioned consciousness, the storehouse of memories.
Patanjali disagrees with this and claims that the mental body is equated with the mind, and the intelligence and false ego are considered to be aspects of that mind. Citta denotes all the fluctuating and changing phenomena of the mind. The intrinsic nature of the mind is tranquility, yet various thought patterns stir it into activity and prevent the mind from realizing its true nature. The source of such thought patterns are twofold – sense perception and memories. As in Sankhya, the Yoga system suggests tha the mind stems from Prakrti (material nature) and is thus under the influence of the three qualities of goodness, passion and ignorance. The relative proportions of these three qualities determine the different states of citta, conditioned consciousness. The turmoil caused by the interaction of these material qualities is responsible for the arising thought patterns in the mind.
Thus, Patanjali states that by practice of Yoga the mind can become free from the clutches of such detrimental thought patterns and once more become tranquil.
Patanjali describes five mental stages:
Ksipta - disturbed
Mudha - stupefied
Viksipta - restless
Ekagra - one-pointed
Niruddha - well-controlled
The first three mental stages are negative and detrimental, acting as impediments to growth and self-exploration. The last two stages are peaceful. All modifications of the mind are found in the first three stages, but in the last two stages there are no modifications. In the stage of ekagra (one-pointedness) the predominating mode is goodness – the lighter side of material nature. This aids concentration and finally brings one to the fifth stage, Niruddha. In this state of mind, consciousness reflects its purity and entirety and one comes in contact with is pure nature.
Modifications of the mind are nine in number –
1) Sickness
2) Incompetence
3) Doubt
4) Delusion
5) Sloth
6) Non-abstention
7) Confusion
8) Non-attainment of the desired state
9) Instability in an attained state.
These nine modifications disturb the mind, producing sorrow, dejection, restlessness, and an unrhythmic breathing pattern. However, according to Patanjali, these modifications can be overcome by the Yoga system – in particular by practice (abhyasa) and detachment (vairagya). Abhyasa, means a particular type of effort or technique through which the mind maintains stillness – a sincere effort for maintaining steadiness of the mind. Perfection in abhyasa is attained through sincerity and persistence. Vairagya does not mean renouncing the world or withdrawing oneself from one's environment – rather it means to have no expectations from external objects. Vairagya means to eliminate identification with the evolutes of nature and to understand oneself as pure self, as a self-illuminating conscious being.
Patanjali also describes another method that he calls Kriya-yoga (the yoga pf purification). In Kriya-yoga Patanjali lists eight divisions:
1) Yama (abstentions): violence, lying, theft, (illicit) sex, and possessions
2) Niyama (observances): purity, contentment, austerities, study
3) Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to seated positions used for meditation. Later, with the rise of Hatha yoga, asana came to refer to all the "postures"
4) Pranayama (Breath Control): Control of prana or vital breath
5) Pratyahara (Abstraction): Reversal of the sense organs
6) Dharana (Concentration): Fixing the attention on a single object
7) Dhyana (Meditation): Intense contemplation of the true nature of reality
8) Samadhi (Liberation): Super-conscious state of enlightenment
Patanjali accepts the existence of isvara who, according to him is perfect, eternal, all-pervading, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. Isvara is unaffected by the afflictions of ignorance, egoism, desire, aversion, and fear of death. Isvara is also free from all karma (actions), from the results of action, and from all latent impressions. Patanjali says that the individual has the same essence as Isvara, but because of the limitations produced by afflictions and karma, one separates oneself from Isvara and becomes a victim of the material world. When ignorance is finally removed by knowledge, all dualities are dissolved and full union is achieved.
SOURCES:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patanjali
http://lib.luksian.com/texte/phil_rel/088/
